Caesar

Gaius Julius Caesar was the last leader of the Roman Republic, before his adoptive son Octavian(Augustus)tran

sformed it into the Roman Empire. Caesar himself served as both a bridge and a catalyst for this transformation. It was directly in the wake of his assassination that 100 senators including Cicero were put to death dealing a fatal blow to the Republic. Caesar himself was a sign of the transition of the Roman government. He served as Consul 5 times for an unprecedented length of time, during the same span Caesar served as high priest of Rome and a tribune.

Early Life Gaius Julius Caesar was born (by Caesarean section according to an unlikely legend) to Aurelia and Gaius Julius Caesar, a praetor. His family had noble, patrician roots claiming descent from Iulus son of Aeneas, however they were neither rich nor influential in this period. The origin of the name Caesar was explained through one of three myths.that the first Caesar had a thick head of hair (Latin //caesaries//); that he had bright grey eyes (Latin //oculis caesiis//); or that he killed an elephant (//caesai// in Moorish) in battle. Being a military officer Julius Caesar favored the third interpretations. Despite their noble origins, the gens Julia only provided Rome with three consuls. With the exception of his ancestry and familial members, very little else is known of Caesars childhood. The teenage Caesar spent his formatives years during the Social Wars to which he was closely connected through his uncle Marius. His uncle's protege Sulla differed greatly from his mentor and their opposition ended in civil war. This animosity was heightened by the Social Wars, when a tribune passed a law transferring the appointment of commander of the war against Mithridates, from Sulla to Marius. In 85 BCE Caesar's father died making the 16 year old Julius Caesar the head of the household, that same year Caesar was nominated for the priesthood of Jupiter. His predecessor has been killed in the purges of Marius. However in order to hold this position he was forced to break off his engagement with Cossutia, a plebeian girl of wealthy equestrian family, and married Cinna's daughter Cornelia. Soon after this Sulla returned to Rome to enact vengeance on Marius and his partisans. Caesar was both a nephew of Marius and a son in law of Cinna was stripped of his priesthood and his inheritance as well as his wife's dowry. Despite this he refused to divorce his wife and went into hiding.

Early Career Directly out of hiding Caesar joined the Army under Marcus Minucius Thernus in Asia and Servilius Isauricus in Cicilia. He served with distinction, winning the Civic crown for his part in the siege of Mytilene on lesbos. Ironically, it was only by losing his priesthood that a military career was available for Caesar.It was on Lesbos that life long rumors of Caesar's homosexuality took shape. Not many years after his Caesar's campaign on Lesbos, Sulla died and Caesar felt comfortable enough to return home to Rome. When he returned home Caesar threw himself into legal advocacy, and even Cicero praised him asking "Come now, what orator would you rank above him...?" In order to improve his rhetoric, Caesar journeyed to the school of Apollos Molon, it was on his return voyage that his famous captivity took place. Showing characteristic vanity,When the pirates thought to demand a ransom of twenty talents of silver, he insisted they ask for fifty. Soon after his release, Caesar captured the pirates and made good his promise to crucify them for their actions. Caesar then journeyed to Asia to put down a revolt and upon his return to Rome was elected a military tribune beginning his ascent through Roman government.

Rise to Glory Caesar greatly enhanced his prestige during 63 BCE when he served as one of the two judges of Rabirius's trial for treason and murder. Although both Cicero and Hortensius defended Rabirius, he was convicted for treason.The same year, Caesar ran for election to the post of Pontifex Maximus, chief priest of the Roman state religion, after the death of Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius, who had been appointed to the post by Sulla. Caesar put a lot of weight on this appointment for is his election bid failed he risked exile for his massive debts. This same year the Cataline Conspiracy was brought to light. While Caesar argued passionetly for the conspirators to be imprisoned in place of execution his eloquent statements failed to avert the deaths of those involved. Another scandal rocked Caesars own home a year later, when his wife was accused of adultery. Although the courts lacked sufficient evidence to convict, Caesar still divorced Pompeia whom he married after his first wife died in child birth. After his praetorship, Caesar was appointed to govern Hispania Ulterior (Outer Iberia), but he was still in considerable debt and needed to satisfy his creditors before he could leave. In order to get a loan he turn to Crassus one of Rome's wealthiest citizens.In Hispania he conquered the Callaici and Lusitani, being hailed as imperator by his troops, reformed the law regarding debts, and completed his governorship in high esteem. Although being hailed imperator entitled Caesar to a triumph he also sought the Consulship, he therefor was forced to surrender what would have been his first triumph.Three candidates stood for the consulship: Caesar, Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, who had been aedile with Caesar several years earlier, and Lucius Lucceius. Caesar and Bibulus were elected as consuls for 59 BC. However, Caesar shared little power with his coconsul and the year was parodied as the Consulship of Julius and Caesar. In an attempt to check Caesar's rise, the Senate sought to bar him from the traditonal governorship of a province. This however backfired and he ended up no only with a province but with an increase of four years on his original term. Seeking to attain wealth and pay off his debts, Caesar began a campaign of subjugation on the Gaulic people. During his second year as governor Caesar doubled his fighting force, with pro-Roman gaulic reinforcments. In response to Caesar's activities the previous year, the belgic tribes of north-eastern Gaul had begun to arm themselves. Caesar treated this as a threat,and enaged a united Belgic army, conquering the tribes. Caesar then attacked the Armorican Peninsula,The conquest of Armorica was completed when Caesar defeated the Veneti in a naval battle, while young Crassus conquered the Aquitani of the south-west. After his defeat of the Gauls ,Casear attacked Britain. The army was forced to retreat back to Gaul due to faulty intelegence.He returned the following year, better prepared and with a larger force. Caesar established Mandubracius of the Trinovantes as a friendly king and brought his rival Cassivellaunus, to terms. After this Caesar returned to Gaul were widespread revolt in due to lack of food, forced Caesar to campaign through the winter and into the following year. Caesar believed Gaul was now pacified. This opinion was for the most part correct as even a revolt in 52 BCE by Vercingetorix could not break Rome's hold over Gaul.

Military Career Julius Caesar is considered one of histories great generals, along with Genghis Khan and Sun Tzu.Caesar suffered occasional tactical defeats, including the Battle of Gergovia during the Gallic War and the Battle of Dyrrhachium during the Civil War. His tactical brilliance was however highlighted by his circumvallation of Alesia during the Gallic War, the rout of Pompey's numerically superior forces during the Civil War, and the complete destruction of Pharnaces' army at Battle of Zela. Caesars forces were also strenghten by his rewarding his troops based on merit not birth, and his equitable by strict disipline. Caesar's infantry and cavalry were first rate, and he made heavy use of formidable Roman artillery and his army's superlative engineering abilities. One example of his troops feats of engineering involved a Gaulish city on a steep hill, Caesar engineers bored through the rock and redirected the water supply toward their own camp. This not only aided the Romans but forced the city's surrender.

Civil War In 50 BCE Caesars proconsular power came to an end and he was called to disband his army and return to Rome by Pompey and a coalition of Senators. The Sentate also declared that Caesar would unable to run for a second term as Consul if he did not immediately return to Rome. Fearing prosection with the defence of proconsular immunity, Caesar took his legion accross the Rubicon and began a Civil War. Pompey was put in charge of combating Caesar yet he and his supporters did not enage the future Dictator despite having the advantage of numbers. Pompey eventually fled while Caesar was unable to pursue, and journeyed to Greece.Caesar then reiforced his legions and marched to Hispania, leaving Mark Antony to control most of Italy and Lepidas as prefect of Rome. In Hispania he defeated Pompey's lieutenants. Caesar then returned east, to challenge Pompey in Greece. On July 10, 48 BC at Dyrrhachium Caesar barely avoided a catastrophic defeat when the line of fortification was broken. However, at Pharsalus Caesar won the day despite being disadvantaged in numbers of both infantry and cavalry in a short engagement. Upon returning to Rome Caesar was offered the office of Dicator a role he filled for all of eleven days, he then ran for Consul and was successful. Caesar then pursued Pompey to egypt where a member of King Ptolemy XIII 's court murdered him. In egypt Caesar also got involved in the war between Queen Cleopatra and her brother. The alliance of Caesar and Cleopatra defeated the Ptolemic army in the battle of Nile. After a few months in Egypt, Caesar brought to heel many Middle Eastern Monarchs including King Pharnaces II of Pontus, Caesar then return to Africa and defeated many of Pompey's remaining allies. After this, he returned to Rome and had the Senate appoint him dictator for ten years in 46 BCE.

Reforms

In 44 BCE the senate appointed Ceasar dictator for life, essenatally putting him abaove the law and constitution. He quickly took many important public offices for himselves and this made it possible for him to make reforms with almost no objection. He made many changes like elimanating debt. Debt had become prevalient during the Civil War, and many people were calling for a cancellation of all debts. Instead of just cancelling the existing debts, Ceasar proclaimed that everyone who was in debt had to only pay back what they originally got from lenders so they could not charge interest. Additionally whatever interest had already been paid was deducted from the total amount due.

The Roman goverment was also handing out corn to approximatly 322,000 poorer people. Caesar reduced this number to 150,000 by encouraging the masses to go and rebuild cities that had been sacked in milatary campains like Carthage and Corinth, or to colonize and build new cities like Arles and Seville. Another part of this plan was to give anyone who had been a soldier and was unemployed a small farm that they could make a living from. He also took care of his own sodiers giving them an extra 25 years of pay each. He created a new system of taxation to protect people from extortion especially in places like Asia Minor and Sicily. To help the unemployed he began a large number of public works. He apointed Varro to the position of head of the state library and instructed to ensure that Rome was the center of learning and culture. To help Varro with this task he gave special privaliges to all teachers of the liberal arts. Since the Jews helped Caesar during the Alexandrine War he drafted legislation so that they were protected by law. One of the most important things that Caesar did while in power was the calender that he is credited with discovering the calender that we use today. He fixed the calender that the Romans used, they had 355 days and to calender on track they would randomly add months when the were to far off.

Public opinion.

Caesar had many supporters and he was also hated by many. Many people liked his reforms, but other people thought that since he had taken so much power for himself he had undermined the point of the a republic. He had taken control of the whole goverment and so he became a monarch in everything but name only. He even said "The Republic is merely a name only, without form or substance."

Caesar has always been one of the most controversial leaders in Rome. His supporters saw him as a defender of the common people, while his enemies saw him as a threat to the republic because he took so much power for himself. This lead to having his enemies assassinate him in 44B.C. in the Senate